Methodology and techniques

An overview of various techniques and methods available for ichnological analysis in field and laboratory studies, as well as in borehole core and image analysis is given. In the field, the lithology-dependent visibility of bioturbation, trace fossils, and ichnofabrics can be enhanced by brushing, sectioning, weathering, sawing, etc. Further methods and techniques include the preparation of peels, molds and casts, different kinds of core sampling, imaging, photogrammetry, anaglyph stereo imaging, high-resolution LiDAR, or laser scanning. Building stones offer the opportunity to closely study various aspects of ichnology. Semiquantification of bioturbation is best performed using categories with equal proportions. In the laboratory, sectioning and enhancement of visibility by staining, peeling or advanced photography techniques, thin-sectioning, optical and scanning electron microscopy, X-ray radiography, computer-aided tomography, and polymer-resin casting can help to increase the outcome of integrated ichnological-sedimentological studies. Industrial application of ichnology is closely related to borehole cores and images, while statistical analysis and computer modeling can be widely applied in ichnology.